Opinions
Teaching Strategies
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Learning Experience Design
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There are many different teaching strategies an instructor might adopt, some of these are suggested for the structure of an entire course while others could be mixed and matched. Many of these are considered to be strategies that promote Active Learning.
Case-based teaching is a pedagogical approach that engages students in the process of making real-world decisions. You create cases that represent authentic workplace situations to encourage students to apply knowledge gained from the classroom or through additional research in order to solve the case. Case-based teaching allows you to gauge the ability of students to synthesize, evaluate, and apply course concepts while students are engaged in the process of authentic problem solving.
Resources
"Teaching with Case Studies," Speaking of Teaching, Stanford University Newsletter on Teaching, Vol. 5, No. 2, Winter 1994.
Williams, B. (2005) Emerg Med J. “Case based learning—a review of the literature: is there scope for this educational paradigm in prehospital education?” 22, p. 577-581.
Since the focus of case-based learning is on problem solving and decision making, the approach can be very useful in health professions education. Cases can be drawn from actual events or created entirely by you, but they should present students with the type of situation that they are likely to encounter in the clinical setting.
The goal is for students to engage in the decision-making process and determine likely or possible solutions. In health professions education, cases can be designed to require students both to draw on existing subject knowledge as well as conduct research to resolve unanswered questions.
Opportunities:
- Engages students in authentic application of knowledge
- Promotes collaboration and cooperation
- Facilitates assessment of student knowledge
Challenges:
- Design process can be time intensive
Case studies involve participants in the effort to answer questions or solve authentic problems. Hence, when designing an effective case study the first place to start is by considering a question or problem that helps achieve the course outcomes and is tied to professional goals.
A case can be drawn from an actual occurrence, or it could be created to address a specific learning objective for the course. Regardless, it needs to be authentic. The question or problem at the heart of the case needs to be practical, relevant, and timely. It may have multiple possible answers, even if one answer is more appropriate than others. The goal is to create a scenario that the students will want to explore; students are interested in cases that they can recognize as both “real” and important.
Step 1: Determine learning outcomes
Before determining the specific case or outlining the steps to explore the case, the expected learning outcomes need to be clarified. Ultimately, the correct resolution of the problem presented in the case is only one purpose served by a case-based assignment. Equally, or perhaps more important, is the effort of students to develop a skill set for identifying and resolving authentic problems while recognizing appropriate resources that are applicable to the clinical setting. Hence, a learning outcome could be a correct diagnosis, or a redesign of a treatment protocol, or the development of public health policy.
The scope of the case-based assignment may vary with the learning goals for that part of the course. For example, an introductory course may present several relatively simple, non-complex cases that students can engage with and solve in a short period, with the goal of introducing them to authentic professional scenarios and effective and efficient research methods. A more advanced or specialized course may engage students in a long-term case-based assignment that draws on professional knowledge and research skills developed over time, perhaps involving multiple courses.
Step 2: Know your students
The success of a case-based assignment is measured by the accomplishment of the students. The case cannot be so difficult that the students will become frustrated, nor can it be so simple that they will be bored or will accomplish the task too soon.
In order to develop a case that will engage your students and prod them to learn more, consider what you know about your students. Take into account knowledge students have already gained from your course, as well as skills or information gathered from clinical work or courses they have already taken. Ideally, your case-based assignment will draw on students’ existing knowledge and skills while also challenging them to acquire new knowledge and skills to complete the assignment.
Step 3: Build the case
After deciding on the topic of the case, you need to determine the relevant resources that may be accessed by the students. These resources may include standard academic resources (journal articles, textbooks, etc.), as well as newspaper articles, personal commentary, or interviews with practitioners. For example, a case study that asks students to determine a patient diagnosis may include a medical record, lab report or x-rays, and a transcript of the patient-doctor conversation.
Once the relevant resources have been determined, the case can be organized and the scenario written. The case as a whole should include explicit outcome objectives, a central scenario (see also Extensions below), and expectations for student activity and deliverables for completion of the case. The scenario may be presented as a narrative which tells a story. The narrative might include information about who was involved in the case, what happened, and perhaps some possible explanations of why it happened.
The case can be presented chronologically either through the viewpoint of one character (as in a detective story) or from the perspective of an omniscient narrator. Cases often include a timeline of events and enough information about the scenario so that as students become invested in the case, they will seek out critical information to help them resolve the central issue(s) of the case.
A case can be introduced to a class through an initial presentation or discussion before the groups break off to work independently with the case materials. Once the investigations are underway, observe the conversations and clarify any unclear components.
In general, your role is to provide feedback on students’ progress with accessing appropriate resources, analyzing and synthesizing information, and accurately applying information relevant to the case. You might encourage students to probe deeply into the cases through questioning the group’s assumptions or perhaps encouraging them to research more deeply before drawing any conclusions. You might also draw upon your own clinical expertise and guide students to consider an alternative approach to the case.
You should actively listen to each group while circling the classroom. In a large class, it can be helpful to plan for time to sit in on the group’s conversation, or consult with the groups outside of class time. If a group feels discouraged by investigative dead-ends, or is heading in the wrong direction with their analysis or resolution, it is important to help redirect the group to revisit previous coursework or explore additional research avenues, but without providing clues on the resolution.
Once the student groups have developed their resolutions, establish a debate format if there are diametrically opposed positions, or you can facilitate a whole-class discussion of the methods used by the groups as well as the results. Each resolved case-based assignment should end with student’s reflecting on the process they undertook to investigate and resolve the case. This reflection could be done in a whole-class setting, in groups, or individually.
Groups and group sizes
The exploration and resolution of a case is most often performed in groups. Groups can range from 4-8 participants, depending on the size of the class. One person within the group may be assigned the role of reporter, with the expectation that he or she will present the results of the group investigation to the entire class. If your course contains multiple case studies, it is usually advisable to maintain the group assignments for the duration of the course while rotating the reporter role within the group.
Pre-written cases
There are websites and printed resources that have pre-packaged cases for use in health care education classrooms (see resources below). When using a pre-written case, consider whether the goals of the case are aligned the goals for the course. Cases may be able to be modified by extending or trimming parts of the initial scenario.
Library Resources
While much of the central information will be presented to the students as part of the case study, the students will most likely need to explore further resources in order to complete the case. Consider collecting library resources or identifying personnel in advance who may assist students in acquiring the necessary information.
Mini-cases
You can create a short-mini case dealing with a very specific topic, such as a pharmacist’s interview, or a pre-surgical consult. Mini cases take less than a class period and can be used in a lab or lecture class to assess previous knowledge or prepare students for the content of the class period.
Interrupted cases
Most cases are presented to students in their entirety at the beginning of the session. In this extension, you can present elements of the case at different intervals. Students generate likely solutions or resolutions based on the information received up to that point, after which they receive further information that guides future investigation.
Interrupted cases can also be used to gradually increase the complexity of the case by presenting additional elements that may challenge student assumptions and prompt deepened exploration of the topic.
Online cases
In a technology-enhanced setting, you can present the case material through a website or a learning management system. The students can work together in groups through discussion forums or online collaboration tools such as Google Docs or Wikis. In a technology-enhanced face-to-face or blended course, the students can work together in the research and exploration stages online, and then collaborate in the face-to-face environment to present and defend their results. In a fully online setting, the students can present their results through a discussion posting, an audio podcast or a virtual presentation tool (Adobe Connect, for example).
Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) include a range of in-class activities that are usually ungraded and sometimes anonymous. They can help you assess how well your students understand the course content. Results from the CATs enable you to identify areas of confusion or misconception and make adjustments to your content, teaching strategies, or learning activities. The approach is active, learner-centered, mutually beneficial, and good practice.
Other Examples of CATs:
Further Readings
The standard reference on CATs is Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers, 2nd edition, by Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia Cross (Jossey-Bass, 1993). This book includes 50 CATs, indexed in a variety of useful ways. The book is available for check-out from the Library.
Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs): An Introduction (Enerson, Plank, & Johnson, 2007)
In addition to understanding how well your students are understanding course content, classroom assessment technique results give you the opportunity to change your teaching in order to better meet your learning goals. For example, if the classroom assessment technique you facilitated indicates most of the class did not understand a topic, you have the opportunity to adjust your teaching accordingly. You may want to repeat the main points of a lecture, post a question for on-line discussion, post a 3-5 minute narrated lecture on the topic, or change a lab activity. You will then want to consider what you can do for your future classes to ensure understanding.
For instructors CATs can:
- provide just-in-time feedback about the teaching-learning process
- provide useful information about student learning with less work than traditional assignments (tests, papers, etc.)
- encourage the view that teaching is an ongoing process of inquiry, experimentation, and reflection
- identify student misconceptions early in the learning process
- keep students engaged in the learning process
For students CATs can:
- help develop better monitoring of their own learning
- reduce feelings of isolation and impotence, especially in large classes
- provide concrete evidence that the instructor cares about learning
- increase critical thinking about the course content
Getting started with classroom assessment techniques can happen in an easy three-step process:
1. Planning
- Select one course you know well and are comfortable with to try a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT) in.
- Pick one class meeting to use one, simple CAT.
- Decide what you want to assess about your students’ learning from a CAT.
- Choose a CAT that provides this feedback, is consistent with your teaching style, and can be implemented easily in your class.
2. Implementing
- Set expectations! Let students know beforehand what you are going to do and tell them why you are asking them for information. You want to explain why you are using this technique (not for grading purposes).
- Make sure students clearly understand the procedure before moving forward. Be explicit about the directions of the exercise and check to make sure everyone is clear on the process before moving forward.
- Let students know how much time they will have to complete the exercise.
- When time is up, collect responses. Read them quickly and provide feedback asap. Ideally, you want to do this before class ends or at the beginning of the very next class.
3. Responding
- Be sure you close the feedback loop in a timely manner.
- Decide what, how, and when you will tell students about their response results. How you will address the results or any misconceptions or gaps in knowledge will depend on the percentage of students who do not understand the concept and the complexity of the information. Below are some suggested guidelines:
- 25% = schedule extra class time
- 20% = offer extra tutorial session
- 15% = distribute an explanatory handout
- Decide what changes to make, if any, to the content or your teaching.
- Let your students know what you learned from the CAT and how you will use this information
Classroom Assessment Techniques
There are hundreds of variations of classroom assessment techniques. Below are some of the more commonly known techniques along with online options.
A quick and simple student writing activity.
Basic Strategy
The 3-2-1 format is a quick reflective activity similar to think-pair-share. It encourages students to reflect on a course experience and organize their thoughts and identify areas of confusion or concern.
Why would you use it?
Similar to minute papers, muddiest point, and think-pair-share, the 3-2-1 Format can be a helpful tool for getting students to organize their thoughts, and promote reflection and metacognition. This activity provides an easy way to check for understanding and gauge student interest. It is also an effective way to promote discuss or review material.
When can you use it?
This activity would traditionally be introduced toward the end of a lesson or after a lecture. It could also be used in response to an assigned reading.
How does it work?
In reaction to presented content, students are asked to take a few moments and jot down:
- 3 ideas or issues from what was presented
- 2 example or uses for how the ideas could be implemented
- 1 unresolved area / muddiest point
Students are then asked to share their ideas in pairs or small groups. Use the responses to help guide teaching decisions. Consider areas of curriculum that need to be reviewed again or specific concepts or activities that are most interesting for students.
Alternative versions
- Use 3-2-1 Format to transition into class discussion.
- Student can complete 3-2-1 as individuals, pairs, or small groups.
- Make the 3-2-1 questions content specific (differences, similarities, etc.)
- Have students focus 3-2-1 on main ideas (most important ideas, supporting details, etc.)
Online options
- 3-2-1 Format could easily be adapted into an online discussion board activity.
Basic Strategy
Focus Listing activity focuses on one concept, term, or topic. Students are asked to provide several ideas related closely with the one concept, term, or topic.
Why would you use?
The purpose of this activity is to help instructors determine what students are able to recall for the main points of a lesson. The preparation and follow-up for a Focused Listing activity is minimal. The Focused Listing activity can help students in several ways:
- Quickly determine what learners recall as the most important points related to a topic
- Assess how well learners can describe or define a central point and to discover how well learners are connecting other concepts to the central point of the lesson
- Gauge the best starting point, make midpoint corrections, and measure the class's progress in learning one specific element of course content
When can you use?
Before, during or after a lesson; works well in classes of all sizes. Focused listings are great follow ups to short presentations during which participants are asked to absorb information that is new and that is vital to the discussion to follow. The listing works well to introduce a topic, as an exercise joining/synthesizing two sets of information (lecture plus follow up reading, two lectures), and as something to return to as a wrap up so that participants can compare before/after thinking.
How does it work?
- Select an important topic or concept that's just been studied or is just about to be studied; write it in a word or brief phrase.
- Write the word or phrase at the top of a sheet of paper as the heading for a "Focused List" of related terms important to understanding that topic.
- Set a limit for either number of items to list (5 to 10) or limit the amount of time (2 to 3 minutes) to list the points.
- Test it yourself (keep to your own limits)--write a list of important words and phrases you recall that are related to or included within the heading you wrote down.
- Look over your list quickly; add any items you may have left out. Determine if any modifications need to be made to this activity, e.g. number of items required or length of time.
- If your test convinces you that the topic is important and well defined have the students complete the exercise. Be sure to increase the time limits you set for yourself, however, since you are the ‘expert’ and students are the ‘novice’ learners.
- Collect their anonymous responses and review the answers by sorting them into piles of appropriate or inappropriate to determine how well students are recalling the main points.
- At the beginning of the next class session, review with the students the findings of the activity. List the points or ideas you developed and include some of the ideas students provided that were not on your list, but were still relevant.
Alternate versions
Use your list as the "master list" and have students compare their lists to it. Look for matches, missing items (on any list), clarification needs, additional teaching and learning opportunities.
Assign this as a small group activity
Online Options
Focused Listing could easily be adapted into an online discussion board activity or a shared Google document activity.
Basic Strategy
Muddiest Point is probably the simplest classroom assessment technique available. It is a quick monitoring technique in which students are asked to take a few minutes to write down the most difficult or confusing part of a lesson, lecture, or reading. It is simple to create and facilitate. In fact, it only takes 15 minutes to collect and scan approximately 100 muddiest points. While it is easy to use, be careful not to over-use this or any single assessment technique. Over using one technique can fatigue students and devalue the process.
Why would you use?
- You can quickly check for understanding. This assessment gives you a picture of misconceptions and confusion that still exists in the students’ minds.
- Students can increase their understanding of their own learning. This assessment provides students with a metacognitive opportunity to think about their own learning. This is especially helpful with new information and complicated procedures.
When can you use?
Use this assessment technique any time, after students have had an opportunity for learning to progress them toward the learning target. This technique is especially helpful if students seem to be having difficulty grasping a concept or process.
How does it work?
- Determine what feedback you want. Do you want to ask a question that encompasses the entire class session or one self-contained segment? Do you want to ask a questions related to a specific lecture, discussion, or presentation? Figure out what is of most value or where students struggle the most.
- Reserve a few minutes at the end of the class session. Leave enough time to ask the question, have students respond, and to collect the responses.
- Let students know how much time they will have to answer the question and when you will follow up with the results and provide feedback.
- With so many students using laptops and tablets, it is plausible students will not have extra sheets of paper. Plan on distributing slips of paper or index cards for students to write on.
- Collect the responses as or before students leave.
- Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.
Alternate versions
This strategy can be presented in many forms:
- Follow up a traditional muddiest point exercise by asking students what could be done to help clear up the “muddy points” for them.
- Use a two column response exercises. One side is labeled “crystal clear” and the other column is labeled “muddiest point”. This alternate version helps students reflect on their own learning as they think about what they do and do not understand.
- Use muddiest point to review work outside of class (e.g. lab or homework assignment).
Online Options
- Have students post to a discussion board.
- In a synchronous (live) online class, students can write on a white-board.
- Use a shared (open for anonymous responses) google document to collect responses.
Basic Strategy
One minute paper is a popular introductory active learning strategy that requires minimal preparation on the part of the instructor. During a one minute paper exercise students are given one minute to write a response to a prompt or question posed by the instructor. Minute papers can segue into a discussion or simply be collected for review by the instructor.
Why would you use it?
- Minute papers provide immediate feedback and allow quick response to students.
- This exercise can be easily facilitated for any class size.
- Allows students who are less vocal to participate.
When can you use it?
This technique is probably best used in lecture or discussion however it can easily be adapted to other settings such as labs, clinicals, or homework assignments. While this technique is flexible it is not universally applicable. Not all learning experiences can be assessed by a technique that asks students to note significant points or open questions. Be cognizant of your goal when choosing a classroom assessment technique.
How does it work?
- Decide what you want to focus on, where you want students to reflect on a topic.
- Write Minute Paper prompts that fit your class and meet your goal. The prompts are the heart of one minute papers.
- Set aside 5-10 minutes to facilitate, as well as time later to discuss the results.
- Share the question with students.
- After the chosen topic or activity is completed, hand out scraps of paper or index cards for students to record their response.
- Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.
- Collect the responses as or before students leave.
- Tabulate the responses and make note of useful comments.
- Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.
Sample Minute Paper prompts:
- Questions Designed to Assess Student Interests: For you, what interesting questions remain unanswered about today’s topic?
- Identifying Perceived Relevance of Course Concepts: During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as things you could or should put into practice?
- Assess Student Attitudes/Opinions: Were there any ideas expressed in today’s class that caused you to reconsider or change your personal? opinions, viewpoints, or values?
- Checking Student Comprehension: What did you perceive to be the major purpose or objective of today’s class?
- Assessing Conceptual Connections (Cross-Concept Integration): Did you see any relationships between today’s topic and other topics previously covered in this course?
Alternative versions
- Allow students to compare and discuss their responses before handing them in.
- Allow small groups to suggest Minute Paper questions. Have members of the group analyze and present the results to the class.
Online options
- Have students post to a discussion board.
- In a synchronous (live) online class, students can write on a white-board.
- Use a shared (open for anonymous responses) google document to collect responses.
Basic Strategy
Think-pair-share can be a great technique for facilitating discussion. It is a quick and simple technique to adopt. Faculty present a question or challenge, students reflect quietly and then partner with someone to discuss. A think-pair-share session could be 5 to 15 minutes.
Why would you use?
This exercise engages the class with content on multiple levels. It can help organize prior knowledge, deepen the level of content analysis, and improves the quality of student contributions. Think-pair-share is a popular technique because sharing ideas with a peer in a group of two is “low risk” compared to sharing an individual idea with an entire class.
When can you use?
Use think-pair-share when you want students to talk over new ideas or critically think about concepts presented in the lesson. This technique can be easily used ‘on the fly’ and works in small or large classes.
How does it work?
1. Develop an engaging question or problem, ideally one with many viable potential responses
2. Have a plan for how to present the question (worksheet, PPT slide, etc.) and how you will facilitate students reporting out to the whole group.
3. Pose a question to students.
4. Students reflect on and write brief notes for one minute in response to the question.
5. Students pair up with someone sitting near them and share their answers verbally for two to three minutes. Alternatively, they may also work together to create one best answer.
6. Randomly choose a few pairs of students to give 30 second summaries of individual or joint answers.
Alternate versions
Ask students to compare and contrast their ideas, reach a consensus, explain why their ideas are different, etc.
Give the students the prompt as homework, coming into class prepared to share.
Have pairs match up with another nearby pair to share ideas before reporting back to whole class.
Online Options
Think-pair-share does not adapt easily to online learning environments. It can be done but requires more work to create groups, private discussion boards, etc.
Basic Strategy
Concept maps are drawings or diagrams used to help students organize and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.
Concept map
Why would you use?
This activity provides an observable action of the student’s patterns of understanding related to a central idea or concept. Concept mapping serves several purposes:
Helps students brainstorm and generate new ideas
Encourages students to discover new concepts and the propositions that connect them
Allows students to more clearly communicate ideas, thoughts and information
Helps students integrate new concepts with older concepts
Enables students to gain enhanced knowledge of any topic and evaluate the information
When can you use?
Concept maps require a lot of cognitive work on the part of the student, and a lot of preparation and analysis on the part of the instructor. Be sure you have tested the concept map activity yourself and given the class the appropriate amount of time to complete the activity. Usually this means twice the amount of time it took you, the expert, to complete. This activity is useful in any course with high theoretical content, courses with large amounts of facts and principles.
How does it work?
Select the concept/theme you wish students to use as a starting point.
Create a concept map:
Identify related key words or phrases. Write down words and key phrases.
Rank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract/general to the most concrete/specific.
Cluster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction and those that interrelate closely. Start to determine the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.
Arrange concepts into a diagram.
Continue identifying the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.
Add second and third level associations, if appropriate.
Good maps usually result from three to many revisions.
After students have completed the concept maps, present your own example to the students and walk through it with them step-by-step, explaining your thinking as you created the concept map.
Important Consideration for Using Concept Maps
Concept mapping can be a very demanding cognitive task for students.
Concept maps requires a large amount of time and energy from faculty to formally assess; concept maps are generally not graded.
Large classes may be managed easier if concept map assignments are assigned to small groups
Best Practices for Using Concept Maps:
Create your own concept map first, before assigning one to your students.
If students are new to concept maps, students will need training and continual practice. Together as a class, create a simple concept map on a concept everyone is familiar wit. For example, use an easy topic like, “What are birds?”
Alternate versions
Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a free association approach by brainstorming nodes and then develop links and relationships.
Assign a concept map as a small group activity to alleviate anxiety.
Extend the activity by having students write an explanatory essay based on their maps.
Construct a concept map and then remove all of the concept labels (keep the links!). Ask students to replace the labels in a way that makes structural sense.
Create a concept map and then remove concepts from the nodes (about one-third of them). These deleted concepts are placed in a numbered list on the map and students choose among them.
Provide a list of concept labels (10 to 20) and ask students to construct their maps using only these labels. The focus here is on the linking relationships, and the evolution of structural complexity of students' knowledge frameworks.
Online Options
There are numerous software tools where students can create concept maps digitally.
Basic Strategy
Jigsaw involves students doing individual research on a subset of a given subject area, and then piecing their research together with other students “to build the whole picture”. Jigsaw exercises challenge students to engage in reciprocal teaching and can be a popular activity for courses that rely on heavy transference of information.
Jigsaw requires a moderate to high amount of faculty preparation and takes a fair amount of class time. Do not overuse this technique, as repeating too often can feel contrived (it is not very flexible). It should be used no more than twice per semester.
Why would you use?
Jigsaw is a variation on a simpler activity in which students come and present directly to their group on a topic of research. By adding the intermediate task of meeting as an “expert group” ensures some quality of ideas and materials. This technique also gives individual students a chance to build confidence in a subject area before presenting to peers.
When can you use?
Jigsaw can be used in a single class session or across multiple sessions.
How does it work?
- Identify a concept area (the whole puzzle) which contains roughly 4-6 subtopics (pieces of the puzzle).
- Divide the class into teams of 4-6 students (the number of students on a team should be equivalent to the number of subtopics).
- Assign each student on the teams a different subtopic. Allow sufficient time for students to “develop expertise”, doing their own reading and research. Jigsaw falls apart if students are not prepared. Assigning questions, reading logs, study guides or reaction papers helps to ensure preparation. Consider asking for a summary of their readings by a certain date.
- Students return to class and consult with the same content experts from the other teams. They are asked to discuss the topic as a group and how best to present it to their respective teams, possibly through creating review sheets / summary guide / examples/ list of resources etc.
- Students return to their original teams where they are then asked to present/teach the topic to their team.
- Conclude with whole class reflection / discussion.
Kelly Macauley's (Clinical Instructor in Physical Therapy) written instructions.
Alternate versions
- Use as a quiz or exam preparation activity.
- Combine the technique with presentations.
Online Options
- Jigsaw is an activity that can be adapted to online learning.
Basic Strategy
Memory Matrix is a simple, two-dimensional table divided into rows and columns. The table is used to organize information and identify relationships in the content. Some cells in the table are intentionally left blank where students are asked to fill in the blank cells, demonstrating their understanding of the content. There is moderate investment of time required on behalf of faculty to create the matrix and then analyze the results.
| Directional Terms for Medical Terminology Course | ||
| Description | Example | |
| Superior | Ex., Above, in an upward direction, toward the head | Ex., The head is superior to the neck of the body |
| Anterior(ventral) | (Fill in) | (Fill in) |
| Posterior(dorsal) | (Fill in) | (Fill in) |
Why would you use?
The technique provides a structure for students to organize and synthesize complicated information. This exercise works well with large amounts of content and can simplify complex, dynamic systems of information. Faculty can identify prior or incorrect knowledge.
When can you use?
Memory matrix is simple to implement and easy to use during instruction however there is some up-front preparation that must be completed. Consider content carefully. Content needs to appropriately align with column and row organization. This exercise is effective after lectures, videos, reading assignments, etc.
How does it work?
- Carefully choose your content topic. Make sure the content can be organized in a table with rows and columns.
- Create a simple matrix. Make one completed matrix to use as a key. This will make the analysis much easier. Also create a blank matrix for students to fill in.
- Explain the purpose of the exercise.
- Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.
- Handout blank or partially filled matrix. Have students work on in class, individually or in groups. Provide practice matrices or examples if this is the first time you are presenting a memory matrix.
- Students complete the matrix and hand-in.
- Review and analyze results
- Analysis: Scan the completed matrices and compare to your key matrix. correct responses vs incorrect responses - focus on patterns in the responses.
- Results: Record the number of each correct or incorrect response into an Excel spreadsheet (or any data management system) where data can be reported in a variety of methods. Look for common misconceptions or errors. This could indicate recall problems, difficultly categorizing information, or insufficient teaching focus on a particular topic or category.
8. Provide feedback and clear misconceptions at next class meeting
Alternative versions
- Cells can be manipulated in any number of ways. For instance, leave the cells blank or fill the cells in and leave the column heading blank.
- Matrix can be completed by individuals, in pairs, small teams, as a class.
Online options
- Use Google Spreadsheet to have small groups, or individuals fill cells.
Basic Strategy
Quiz Show uses quiz game show format (e.g. Jeopardy or Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) to rapidly move through a series of questions with students. This strategy is popular for introducing game mechanics (points, competition) into a classroom activity.
Why would you use?
Quiz Show is popular for review sessions for reinforcing important information or but is usually not considered a good way to introduce content. The game format of a quiz show activity can be to keep students engaged although it should be used in moderation as it lacks authenticity to real world applications of knowledge.
When can you use?
Quiz Show is popular for review sessions before major assessment events. Quiz show could be used in short 5-10 minute segments or could easily fill an hour session.
How does it work?
Present a grid (or list) of questions on a whiteboard or PowerPoint. When crafting questions be mindful of the standard advice on writing multiple choice questions. Depending on class size you would likely divide students into groups. Student can be given a “bell” to ring in, or simply rotate between students. Quiz show is more appropriate for short answer questions not open ended questions.
Alternate versions
- Students answer individually
- Use in combination with clickers
- Students write and submit questions in advance
- Pub trivia mode: multiple questions in small groups, answered in writing rather than first to buzz in
Online Options
- Quiz Show Review does not adapt easily to online learning environments.
The "Flipped Classroom" model can take many forms, but the basic idea is that the traditional model, where students absorb content in class and then go home to practice or explore it further, is flipped. In a flipped classroom, students are responsible for learning the content at home and then class time is spent on application, synthesis, analysis, or whatever else the content calls for.
Benefits:
- More time for interaction between teachers and students
- Students can review content at their own pace and as frequently as they need
- Active classroom leads to more engaged students
- More flexibility to accommodate learning differences
In many flipped classrooms, lecture content is delivered via videos (the Kahn Academy is a typical example). One of the challenges is keeping the content engaging. Video lectures can feel even less engaging than in person lectures if you aren’t careful . Thankfully two of the originators of the flipped classroom have provided tips for How to Make Videos Your Students Will Love.
You’ll also want to consult with our IT department and one of our instructional designers to make sure you get the support you need.
However, you don’t necessarily need to rely solely on videos you create. Take a look at our Course Materials and Readings page for more ideas.
One of the best outcomes for flipping the classroom is increased time for active learning in the classroom. If you are intrigued by the flipped classroom model, you probably have your own ideas about how to fill that time. If you’d like some suggestions, you could try things like:
- Classroom Assessment Techniques
- Team-based Learning
- Role Playing
- Case-based Learning
Not convinced? Watch Salman Kahn talk about using video in the classroom in this 2011 TED Talk.
Asking your students to take on characters and act out situations is a great way to explore attitudes and practice basic skills and behaviors. Role playing is also quite versatile. It can be used as an on-the-fly in-class activity, or it can be a semester-long project where students immerse themselves in a role and produce a detailed account of the experience.
Regardless of the scope, here are some options for setting them up and conducting them.
Setting Up
- Free form - Give participants the general situation and let them figure out the details.
- Prescribed - Give participants detailed instructions about the roles they will be playing and how they should behave.
- Partially prescribed - Give participants details about the roles but not how they should react in the situation
- Replay life - Ask participants to reenact actual scenes from their own lives.
- Dramatic reading - Give participants a script to act out.
Conducting
- Simultaneous - Have all groups role play at the same time.
- Stage Front - Participants perform the role play in front of the entire group who then provide feedback.
- Rotational - Start the role play as you would for Stage Front, but then interrupt and substitute one or more new participants.
- Repeated - After reflection, ask participants to act out the role play a second time.
- Different Actors - After the initial Stage Front role play, ask another group of participants to recreate the same role play.
- Role Switch - Ask participants to run through the scene one time and then have them switch characters before running the same scene again.
Adapted from Silberman, Mel. (1995). 101 ways to make training active. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Role Playing in Health Care Education
Whether you want your students to fully immerse themselves in the professional role they will assume in the clinic, to begin to understand or empathize with potential clients/patients, or to practice health care team communication, role playing can be a powerful tool.
In the field of health sciences where a large compendium of research and knowledge exists yet data and interpretation rapidly changes, you often feel pressured to deliver as much content as time allows. The lecture-based classroom that often results from this pressure places students into a passive mode, and while you are teaching, it is not always clear whether the students are learning. One pedagogically sound approach that engages students in meaningful work and encourages them to develop skills applicable to their profession is team-based learning (TBL). This approach uses group work as a strategy to teach course content. The majority of class time is spent in groups in which students actively solve problems that they will likely face in the future of their respective fields.
Team-based learning (TBL) is particularly effective in health professions education where opportunities to learn and practice problem solving and application of core concepts are critical to students. This section will introduce the concept of team-based learning in the health professions and provide suggestions on how to create an effective team-based environment.
Team-based learning emerged in the 1970s as a way to engage students in large classes. Since then, it has been applied across all the disciplines and has achieved a strong foothold in the health professions education community. Team-based learning promotes the real-world application of skills and holds students accountable for their own learning.
When properly designed, a team-based learning approach achieves a high level of student engagement that is not possible in an instructor-centered learning environment. The critical difference between team-based learning and group work is that the construction and operation of the team is a central part of the learning process in team-based learning. Students are not only learning the material and contributing to the construction of a group project. They are also developing problem-solving and teamwork skills.
TBL in Health Professions Education
Team-based learning has proven to be effective in getting students to assimilate course content and in preparing them for future professional decision-making, and its adoption has spread to many disciplines, including health professions education. Those who have adopted TBL in health professions programs find it particularly suitable for these fields of study because students are expected to know large amounts of information, demonstrate that they know a variety of facts, and ultimately apply their newly acquired information. In addition, students must be able to show their facility with problem-solving and decision-making in the context of working with other health care professionals, educating their own patients, and demonstrating the attitudes and skills of successful health care professionals. With its readiness assurance process and the focus on group activity and decision-making, the TBL approach provides this type of learning environment for students and the group work prepares them to develop the competencies of working as a member of a self-directed team (Parmelee, 2008b).
Opportunities:
- Increases student engagement
- Promotes the development of skills necessary for effective teamwork
- Develops skills in collaboration and problem solving which can be applied in the clinical setting
- Encourages higher-order thinking
- Provides visible measures of student learning
Challenges:
- Content needs to be restructured into team-based projects
- Facilitation methods can be uncomfortable if you are new to the process
Michaelsen and Sweet (2008b) maintain that there are specific elements essential for groups to develop into high-functioning learning teams.
Create teams to promote inquiry
The careful construction of the team is at the core of an effective team-based learning experience. The ideal team size is 5-7 members, with static membership across the semester. The teams should be chosen and managed by you to avoid sub-groups or cliques. In optimizing conditions for group cohesion, create groups with a diverse (in terms of background, experience, ethnicity, etc.) set of members as possible, avoid placing two or more students who have some previously established relationship in the same group, and keep the same groups throughout the entire semester to allow self-directed teams to develop over time.
If one focus of the assignment is to develop collaborative skills, teams should be encouraged to collectively determine solutions to problems; i.e., you should discourage dividing the work among individual team members. Since a primary goal of team-based work is to develop teamwork skills, the functional relationship that develops among the team members is as important as the material being discussed.
For more details, take a look at the Team-Based Learning Collaborative’s site.
Identify opportunities for team-based assignments
While a team-based assignment can be created from any topic, they function best when they engage students in multi-faceted problem-solving and team-building exercises. They should involve skills or procedures that students will need to apply in the clinical setting and ask students to incorporate material learned in lecture or in labs. Examples of team-based assignments in health professions education include diagnosis, application of clinical knowledge to determine the appropriate treatment or intervention, and prediction of possible patient outcomes.
Assignment Design
The most successful TBL assignments are those that require students to apply course themes and concepts in their decision-making process and that are simple in output. The goal is to get students involved in unpacking complex issues during the group activity and to be able to focus on a simple way of delivering their decision and rationale. This is why long research papers (rather complex outputs) are strongly discouraged as methods of assessing group work. TBL instructors recommend following the 4 S’s in designing TBL assignments. These include:
- Create group assignments that are significant to students.
- All teams should work on the same assignment problem.
- Students should make a specific choice in response to the problem.
- Students report their choices at the same time.
(Michaelsen & Sweet, 2008a, p. 20)
Create questions/problems/scenarios to engage students
After identifying an authentic situation that realistically engages students in a team-based assignment, create a set of questions or scenarios that students will use to explore the material. When creating questions or problems for the teams, consider ways to engage students and maintain authenticity. The questions should promote exploration of various possible answers and be tied to course outcomes. Ideally, the assignments should engage students with the material presented in lecture. That is, after passively receiving course material, the students should engage with the material through the team-based work. Unlike case-based assignments, team-based assignments can focus on smaller-scale problem sets and be interspersed throughout a lecture or a lab.
Examples:
Given a case history or set of patient-related examination findings:
- Recommend a process for determining the patient’s diagnosis and treatment needs
- Recommend additional tests or examinations to be conducted
- Determine the most probable diagnosis
- Devise and explain a treatment plan
- Predict likely outcomes from a given intervention(s) or treatment(s)
- Recommend a process of determining the best course of action for the patient’s continuing care
Feedback
Frequent and immediate feedback positively influences student learning and contributes to group development.
Make students accountable
For a team-based learning experience to succeed, all students must be prepared to engage with the material and each other. Students must be held accountable for the quality of their preparation for in-class activities, team members need to be accountable to one another through peer assessments, and teams must be accountable to high quality results. The latter can be accomplished by designing team assignments so that their product can be easily and frequently compared to that of other teams.
The Readiness Assurance Process
Students must go beyond simply scanning to familiarize themselves with course content. They must study and absorb assigned course materials for each unit of the course. To prepare for group activities and ensure accountability, students are tested in what is called the Readiness Assurance Process, also known as RAP. They must comprehend course content before coming to class because the majority of time in class is spent applying major concepts from their readings.
To ready students for the in-class assignments and ensure that individuals are assessed for their contribution, consider the following steps using The Readiness Assurance Process (RAP):
- Create pre-class worksheets that focus students’ reading on the central issues related to the assignment.
- Assess student readiness through graded pre-class quizzes of key concepts and related course material (RAP).
- While grading the individual quizzes, have the students take quiz again in teams. During the team test, students must come to a consensus on the answer to each test question, thus requiring students to argue for their correct responses.
- Following the test, give immediate feedback to the questions, and lecture for a brief period of time. Provide both individual and team feedback on pre-class quizzes to establish a baseline of understanding. Allow teams to justify alternate answers.
- Assign team-based question/problem/scenario.
- After a set period of time, teams announce their best answer/approach.
- If discrepancies exist among teams, teams defend their positions.
- Wrap up the discussion by emphasizing application of core concepts.
- Have students grade their individual contribution to the team effort. Incorporate student self-assessment into your assessment.
- Grade the work of the team based on process, effort, and results. Be sure to include supportive feedback that encourages teams to continue to work hard.
- Have the teams justify their results to the entire class.
- Students’ final grades are based on both individual and team performance.
This concise, focused process is meant to clear up misunderstandings in the course material and allow students to develop arguments for any answer they would like to appeal. Once this process is complete, the majority of class time is spent applying course content through group activity and assignments (Michaelsen & Sweet, 2008).
While the traditional team-based approach was designed for the standard face-to-face classroom, team-based learning can be employed in any modality. How does team-based learning translate into the online environment? With time to plan ahead and design a instructionally sound course, those who have (Palsolé & Awalt, 2008) implemented TBL online have done so with success. Listed below is information on how to implement and design TBL in an online course. The extensions apply the same general concepts outlined for face-to-face team-based learning to technology-enhanced learning environments, either web enhanced, blended/hybrid, or fully online.
Group discussion forums and activities
In a technology-enhanced classroom, you can assign different teams to groups within the learning management system. The groups should be private and only visible to group members. After working together for a set period of time, an individual group member can post to a whole-class discussion forum and describe and defend the position of the group. Other online group activities:
- Assigning appropriate textbook readings and other resources including those that are online.
- Posting assignments to common discussion forum.
- Teams discussing via the group discussion board and coming to a consensus.
- Teams developing assignment products on a wiki, shared Google docs, or use of other collaborative tools.
- Team leader posting assignments to the Dropbox and uploading assignments to discussion forum along with the list of team assignment discussions.
- Conducting peer assessments.
- Assigning reflective assignments to synthesize learning and experience. This activity can also yield feedback for your future course planning and revisions.
Online quizzes (Online Readiness Assurance Process)
A critical factor in the success of team-based learning is learner readiness. Since the classroom time is spent working through problems in teams, each individual team member must be prepared to participate. In a web-enhanced, blended, or online course, online quizzes can be used to assess learner readiness. The quizzes can be used as a graded assessment item or a self-assessment on the part of the student. Whether they are graded or not, the quizzes should encourage students to research the correct answer. To apply the Readiness Assurance Process online:
- Use the Quiz tool in D2L to give the individual readiness tests to each student.
- Once complete, open the course discussion forum to allow teams to discuss answers to test items for a couple of days.
- Assign a team leader to answer the team readiness assurance test based on the answers arrived at through consensus on the discussion topic.
- Assign a team reporter to post a summary of the discussion on common discussion forum.
- Both you and students post feedback on common discussion forum.
- Post a mini lecture in response to student discussion posts, clearing up misunderstandings as evidenced by discussion threads.
- Peer assessments are conducted.
- Repeat the process about five times during the semester for each unit of study.
Synchronous classroom
While most online courses (or online portions of blended courses) are asynchronous (students log on at different times), the synchronous or live classroom, like Adobe Connect, can be employed in a team-based learning environment to provide opportunities for students to communicate in real-time regardless of their physical location.
In this case, the students should be able to determine the best time for meeting online to ensure the flexibility of online learning is preserved. Individual groups should then post their answers to the problem in an online discussion forum. Monitor the whole-class discussion forum and encourage teams to justify their positions.
Building Learning Community, Fostering Team Cohesion, and Managing Expectations
As with any online environment, best practice recommends you build a learning community and manage student expectations. This is also the case for a new teaching strategy. In creating a learning community that relies heavily on group dynamics, be sure to foster team cohesion by creating introduction posts. Some even recommend that TBL students share their strengths and weaknesses with one another in the introductions (Palsolé & Awalt, p. 89). In this way, students can think about ways they can support one another in the learning process and leverage each other’s strengths in the group activities. Having students create team contracts and establish their own strategy for working with one another creates the expectation that each student contributes to the success of the team’s learning. Asking students to offer thoughtful comments on each other’s posts not only ensures that each member’s ideas are being taken into account, but also offers fresh perspectives and approaches to problem-solving. Spending a fair amount of time and energy in reading and composing discussion threads implies the importance of this tool as a catalyst for learning and each student’s contribution.
In terms of managing expectations, explain the benefits of TBL to students and set out the exact procedures for how TBL will unfold in the course in order to get students on board with the new strategy. Remember, students mainly take online courses for the flexibility they offer, and it may be unrealistic to ask teams to find a mutually available time for them to complete group activities. This implies a re-design of this portion of TBL from the face-to-face version. The asynchronous nature of online courses also necessitates more time for student-student exchange and feedback on discussion posts and assignment contributions. While the success of TBL relies on immediate feedback, it does not necessarily mean it must be instantaneous (Palsolé & Awalt, 2008).